Are eco-friendly planes possible?

The ecology is finally getting more attention, and eco-friendly products are becoming increasingly popular. Hybrid cars are one of the best examples how eco-friendly vehicles are becoming more and more popular as their sales have experienced significant growth in the last few years.

And now it looks like air traffic might also have its green representative in form of eco-friendly plane after MIT-led team designed an eco-friendly airplane that is estimated to use 70 percent less fuel than current planes while also reducing noise and emission of harmful nitrogen oxides.

Current estimates say that air traffic will double by 2035 so it is of vital importance to develop eco-friendly planes that would be far more efficient than current planes in order to tackle climate change problem.

THE MIT scientists have designed two series of eco-friendly planes: the 180-passenger D "double bubble" series to replace the Boeing 737 class aircraft, currently used for domestic flights, and the 350 passenger H "hybrid wing body" series to replace the 777 class aircraft now used for international flights.

D series was constructed by reconfiguring the tube-and-wing structure. Instead of using a single fuselage cylinder, scientists used two partial cylinders placed side by side to create a wider structure whose cross-section resembles two soap bubbles joined together. They also moved the engines from the usual wing-mounted locations to the rear of the fuselage. Unlike the engines on most transport aircraft that take in the high-speed, undisturbed air flow, the D-series engines take in slower moving air that is present in the wake of the fuselage. This techniques is knows as the Boundary Layer Ingestion (BLI), and it allows the engines to use less fuel for the same amount of thrust, although the design has several practical drawbacks, such as creating more engine stress.

H series utilizes much of the same technology as the D series, including BLI, a larger design is needed for this plane to carry more passengers over longer distances. The MIT team designed a triangular-shaped hybrid wing body aircraft that blends a wider fuselage with the wings for improved aerodyamics. The large center body creates a forward lift that eliminates the need for a tail to balance the aircraft.

Eco-friendly air traffic certainly sounds very good, especially after construction of eco-friendly planes look possible.

How do computers interpret art, beauty and aesthetic?

Some mathematical algorithms actually give computer a clue about the certain style of painting of the certain artist. The composition of colors or some other aesthetic measurements can already be quantified by a computer, but computers are still far from being able to interpret art in the way that people do because artificial intelligence still lacks far behind human intelligence in terms of art and aesthetics.

The Scientists from the Laboratory of Graphics and Image in the University of Girona and the Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, in Germany have shown that certain artificial vision algorithms mean a computer can be programmed to interpret an image and differentiate between artistic styles but based only on low-level pictorial information such as brush thickness, the type of material and the composition of the palette of colors.

Humans, on the other hand interpret art by using medium and high-level pictorial information such as type of painting (landscape, portrait, etc.), historical concept, and personal knowledge about the certain artist. Art can only partially be explained by mathematics, and therefore I highly doubt that computers will be able to interpret art like humans now can in years to come because humans do much more than just analyzing pixels and color distribution like computers do.

Human and computer perception of beauty and aesthetics are two completely different things, and though computer technology is constantly developing I do not see how computers would develop sense for beauty and the fine art. For that computers would have to have a human perception, and this is really only possible in some Sci-fi movies.

Advantages of having bigger brain - Bigger brain the smarter you are?

The brain is the center of our nervous system, and a highly complex organ that generates our behavior. Brain still remains a great mystery to scientists despite different studies, and nobody knows the limits of human brain. We only know that we use very small part of our brains, and who knows perhaps the only real difference between humans and gods is in how much of their brain do they use. But since we are getting into the philosophical sphere I will get back to the main topic of this article, namely the size of the brain. What does it mean to have big brain? Does having bigger brain means that you are smarter than the ones with smaller brains or what?

Some studies have discovered that brain size matters for intellectual ability and having bigger brain means having better intellectual ability. The most interesting study that confirmed this took part in 2005 McMaster University researchers have found that brain size really matters. They also found that there are differences between women and men when it comes down to brain size. In women, verbal intelligence is correlated with brain size, accounting for 36 percent of the verbal IQ score. In men, this was true for right-handers only, indicating that brain asymmetry is a factor in men.

But on the other hand lets look at Albert Einstein's brain. Albert Einstein is undisputedly one of the biggest geniuses in our history but his brain was of average size. However his brain did have unusual brain anatomy and many scientist believe this is the main reason why Einstein had different flow of thoughts compared to all other. In fact one part of the Einstein's brain was missing and according to some scientists this enabled neurons in this part of his brain to communicate better resulting in one of the greatest mind in human history.

Lets go a little bit to animal world to see size of their brains. For instance the average adult human brain weighs around 3 pounds (1,361 grams) which is close to average brain weight of dolphin. We consider dolphin to be very intelligent animals, right? Well how about sperm whale, nobody considers this whale to be genius among animals and yet it has brain that weighs around 17 pounds (7,800 grams). We consider dogs to be smart but they only have average brain of around 2.5 ounces (72 grams). Of course we should also take into account the size of the total body, and it is not the same to compare brain of sperm whale that weighs more than ten tons to brain of dolphin that weighs only around 350 pounds (158.8 kilograms). Having bigger body usually means having larger skull, and therefore having bigger brain.

What we should focus here is brain to weight ratio, if we focus on this then we'll see that we are the smartest ones on planet since our brain to weight ratio is about 1-to-50. For most other mammals, it's around 1-to-180, and for birds, it's around 1-to-220. As you can see the brain takes up more weight in a human than it does in other animals, and makes us smarter than animals.

So size does really matter when it comes to brain, but since we only know so little about brain who knows what else our brain is capable of. Perhaps size isn't that important for making us smart as we now think. Well, it's up to future to tell us more. For now the size does matter.

How close is the nearest black hole to Earth?

Until recently it was impossible to give an exact answer on bow close is the nearest black hole to Earth but an international team of astronomers has for the first time accurately measured the distance from Earth to a black hole, and this distance is 7800 light years, which is much closer that many scientists assumed it is.

How did they measure this distance? The breakthrough discovery was in this case the result of measuring the radio emissions from the black hole and its associated dying star. An exact distance from black hole is important from two different reasons. First of all astronomers can now gain a better picture of how black holes evolve, and what is even more important an exact distance is important for measurements of the black hole´s spin.

This nearest black hole was the result of supernova explosion, and it moves through space at a rate of about 40 km per second.

Scientists hope that with the help of this new measuring method they'll be able "to answer the question as to whether there is a difference between black holes that evolve directly from the collapse of a star without a supernova and black holes that evolve via a supernova and a temporary intermediate star, a proto-neutron star. We expect that the black holes in the last group can get a kick. Black holes formed in this way could then move through space faster", as Peter Jonker from SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research said in his interview.

Energy drinks - Good or bad for you?

Energy drinks are becoming more and more popular worldwide, for instance 1.5 billion cans of Red Bull were sold in the United States in 2004. This is because many young people, especially students consume these energy drinks in order to increase their concentration during long study through the night. But are these popular energy drinks good or bad for you?

These energy drinks are made up of caffeine and sugar, and according to scientists they have negative impact on human body because they don't hydrate the body efficiently simply because they have too much sugar in it. And caffeine on the other hand doesn't always improve physical performance, especially in large quantities when it can even significantly increase the risks of fatigue and dehydration.

Consumption of Vodka Red Bull could lead to all sorts of trouble since it gives you the feeling you're not drunk though you very much are drunk.

And not only these as several different studies showed how strong doses of caffeine can increase hypertension, cause heart palpitations, provoke irritability and anxiety as well as cause headaches and insomnia. So it is definitely not wise to consume more than two cans a day.

However many young people consume lot more than two cans a day, and what is even worse almost 50 % of young people in US between 18-24 have admitted that they consume these energy drinks mixed with alcohol, and especially popular are Vodkas Red Bull. Consumption of Vodkas Red Bull is dangerous because it cancels the warning signs that the person is actually drunk. In many cases when someone consumes too much alcohol, their head spins and they feel tired but energy drinks cancel this effect so person thinks it is sober but in fact it is very much drunk. This can of course lead to all sorts of troubles.

Earth's outer core consists of which materials?

Despite an impressive technological advances scientists still know very little about Earth's interior. It is a bit odd that we seem to be gathering knowledge about distant planet and far galaxies while at the same time we know so little about our own planet.

Scientists at the University of Calgary hope to put more light on the interior of our planet, specifically the outer core, and their latest findings have been published in the May edition of the journal Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors.

They have gathered valuable data by observing distant earthquakes, and according to them these earthquakes can provide valuable clues about Earth's outer core. One of the lead scientists, professor Dave Eaton, said that Earth's outer core is composed of molten iron, nickel and other as-yet unknown lighter elements such as silicon, sulfur, carbon or oxygen.

Earth'c core is located almost 3,000 km below the surface (2,891 km), and in order to determine of which materials does the earth's core consists scientists measured the seismic wave speed (speed of sound) at the top of Earth's core.

This method isn't exactly novelty but scientists from the University of Calgary used brand new digital processing approach, which helped them analyze faint signals, produced by 44 earthquakes, and with it they were able to measure the sound speed at the top of Earth's core with unprecedented accuracy.

The results of this study should be of great help to research efforts at laboratories where core composition is studied by simulating extreme pressure and temperature conditions that exist in the Earth's core.

What event caused the end of the last ice age?

Scientists are still anything but certain in what event led to the end of the last ice age that resulted in warmer climate and the birth of human civilization. From the geological point of view we know that ice sheets in the northern hemisphere began to collapse and warming spread quickly to the south. Most scientists support the theory that the event that led to warming was an orbital shift that caused more sunlight to fall across Earth's northern half.

The latest interesting scientific report that tries to put more light into the event(s) that ended the last ice age comes from the team of scientists from the Columbia University. They believe that not one event, but actually entire chain of events caused the end of the last ice age.

According to their theory the events began with the melting of the large northern hemisphere ice sheets that happened 20,000 years ago. The melting ice sheets reconfigured the planet's wind belts, pushing warm air and seawater south, and pulling carbon dioxide from the deep ocean into the atmosphere, allowing the planet to heat even further.

Our planet regularly goes into an ice age every 100,000 years or so, and this is caused by the shifts in Earth's orientation toward the sun. At the peak of the last ice age that happened around 20,000 years ago, Earth's orbit shifted. This event lead to more summer sunlight began falling on the northern hemisphere, melting those massive ice sheets and sending icebergs and fresh water into the North Atlantic Ocean.

The report also says that freshening of the North Atlantic triggered a series of cold spells in Greenland and northern Europe by shutting down the Gulf Stream current, which usually carries warm water north from the equator. Sea ice spread across the North Atlantic, bringing bitter cold winters to Europe and profoundly reshaping the planet's wind belts. And with the North Atlantic covered in ice, the tropical trade winds shifted south, bringing dry spells across much of Asia and rain to normally arid regions of Brazil. The displaced winds moved not only rain further south, but hot air and warm seawater, heating up the southern hemisphere.

The report also states that ice core records show that between 18,000 and 11,000 years ago atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rose from 185 parts per million to 265 parts per million. (Current levels are 393 parts per million, after the heavy industrial expansion across the globe). The infusion of carbon dioxide came just as the planet's orientation was shifting, and summer sunlight to the northern hemisphere was declining, at about 11,000 years ago. The scientists have also concluded that the boost in carbon dioxide may have even prevented Earth from falling into another ice age.

This is one way to answer the question why does the Earth, when it appears so firmly in the claws of an ice age, start to warm? Most scientists agree that carbon dioxide played the crucial role in warming of the planet but up to this point scientists didn't have sound explanations in explaining the early warming in the southern hemisphere, where glaciers in Patagonia and New Zealand were melting before carbon dioxide levels rose significantly.

There were some scientists that supported a theory that a change in ocean currents, triggered by the freshening of the North Atlantic, caused this early warming. But computer models using ocean circulation to explain the rapid warming in the south have been unable to recreate the large temperature jumps seen in the paleoclimate record. Now, with the evidence for shifting southern hemisphere westerlies, the rapid warming looks to be finally explained.

Huge stars in space - The biggest one yet

Today's astronomy news are all about scientists detecting the most massive star of all time, and they have named it R136a1, not very original name if I may add.

If you thought that our Sun is enormous you better think again because this star has a mass about 265 times that of our own Sun, and to make things even more interesting scientists believed that at the time when this star was born its mass was even bigger, at about 320 times that of the Sun's mass.

The biggest star in the universe - Our Sun looks so small compared to this massive star.

Professor Paul Crowther from UK's Sheffield University said that "if it (this star) replaced the Sun in our Solar System, it would outshine our Sun by as much as the Sun currently outshines the full Moon.

This star as many stars before them, and even more after them will one day explode as supernova to seed the Universe with heavy elements.

It is also very interesting to add that astronomers also detected several stars with surface temperatures over 40,000 degrees - more than seven times hotter than our Sun.

Scientists are also convinced that no planet can exist in orbit around such huge stars. Professor Crowther explained this on very funny way by saying that "planets take longer to form than these stars take to live and die, and even if there were planets, there would be no astronomers on them because the night sky would be almost as bright as the day in these clusters".

Previously observed huge stars had been seen to get as big as 150 times the mass of our Sun but these latest findings will no doubt raise interesting questions about upper limits of size these colossal stars have.

Many scientists support the theory that stars must have some physical barrier of their growth because their growth should come to a moment where the pressure from all the radiation emitted by a stellar behemoth pushes back against any further infall of gas and dust.

Most astronomers will agree that very early Universe has lots of these massive stars, and when these colossal stars blew apart, their cataclysmic demise was so violent they may not have left behind a remnant core of material as is often the case following a supernova; or even a black hole which is another common consequence, too. Instead, they simply have dumped all their contents back into space, dispersing heavy elements like iron equivalent to the mass of 10 of our Suns.

Is sleep function really so important?

Despite the fact that many people think how the main function of sleep is to rest your body science still hasn't given the adequate answer of what's the most important function of the sleep. Why? Because science still do not fully understand the function of sleep, though all scientists will agree that this is very important function because not only humans but also all animals sleep.

Sleep is such a common thing that we do every night but to science sleep is one of the most complex questions because science still doesn't now the primary function of sleep, despite many past and ongoing researches.

When it comes to searching for a core purpose of the sleep some scientists believe that sleep is all about the rest, and putting your body into quiet state, and that there are no other important functions that sleep has on our bodies.

Still, majority of scientists is convinced that sleep must have some other important functions too besides the resting your body. Sleep deprivation has many negative effects, not only on human population but also on animals. Experiments with prolonged sleep deprivation has been shown to kill rats, flies and cockroaches, and humans who have a genetic insomnia can also die so there has to be more than rest.

Another interesting hypothesis is that be important for accumulating new memories, and to allow the brain to forget the unimportant impressions of the previous day, so there is more free room for more learning the next day.

But why do the animals sleep then? Do they also need to erase previous memories and learn new knowledge with each new day?

Science in our daily life

In the history of mankind, advent of Science is the greatest blessing. Science has come to relieve mankind from sufferings, ignorance and to control nature. It has been defined as a systematized body of wisdom and knowledge which can give rise to greater and greater inventions. Science has also been known as a faithful servant of man who serves all his life and as per the orders of man. Science can be harmful if we misuse it.

Science has brought about far-reaching changes in every sphere of our daily life. Now everybody can afford to avail the benefits of luxuries and comforts created by Science. Science has made goods cheap and readily available and has brought them within reach of every individual. All kinds of gadgets of music, entertainment and communication have been brought to our door with the help of Science. Surely, the life of man is very different from what it used to be few years back. Truly, Science has given ears to the deaf, eyes to the blind and limbs to the crippled.

In everyday live, we have to communicate with different friends and relatives, various official people and for general purposes. And many people to be contacted can be at very far off distances. However, time and distance both have been conquered by Science. Whether we want to communicate or travel, both are possible within seconds. For communication, we have telephones, mobiles, wireless, E-mail, VSATs and internet etc., For faster traveling, aeroplanes are being used. Railways have made journeys swift, safe and comfortable. Entire world has shrunk into a small family. Modern ships have conquered turbulent waters and are perfectly safe for traveling and transportation of goods.

Health is wealth. This has been made possible with modern machines. Science has invented ways to peep inside the human body to tackle diseases of human beings through X-ray machines. Diseases can easily be detected and various tests conducted within a matter of few seconds. Complicated operations are possible and are successful with the help of equipments and machines invented with the help of Science. Human life would get transformed into new horizons and heights of prosperity when atomic energy is fully utilized for peaceful purposes.

A big contribution of science in our daily life is electricity. Without electricity, there would have been complete darkness after evening hours and no industry could function without the power of electricity. We have been able to control the effects of weather change with electrical energy. All fans, coolers and air-conditioners in summer and all kinds of heating gadgets in winter, functions with the help of electricity. Entertainment through cinema is one of the most remarkable invention of science in our daily life. It provides us cheap and enjoyable pastime and comfort from tensions of daily life. Now each household has television and radios which are the fastest medium of mass communication made possible by Science.

Science is proving to be of great help in our daily life. The world would have come to a standstill without inventions of Science. There is shortage of space everywhere and as such, high - rise buildings are constructed both for commercial and residential purposes. Inventions of lifts working in these buildings have made life very easy. A housewife can cook tast with the help of electricity run kitchen machines. Thus she saves a lot of her cooking time and is able to devote that precious time in many other activities related to family life. The washing of clothes for her has become really an enjoyable game of few minutes. Even she need not run here and there spreading wet clothes for drying. All this is possible with the production of fully automatic washing machines.

In spite of Science as a blessing in our daily life, we remain in constant fear of mass destruction weapons invented by Science. Another disadvantage of science has been the misuse of mass media for propaganda. Sometimes information stories facts are blown out of proportion leading to tension among the masses. Much of communal tension withing the country has been the creation of media. Mass media is used by anti-social elements to spread rumours and false information. Once a story is circulated, it spreads like a forest fire, thanks to mass media. It is certainly upto mankind to utilize the benefits of Science for welfare of all or to indulge in making mass destruction weapons for miseries of future generations. Science can further be utilized to make our daily life more prosperous, comfortable and full of happiness.

Beyond Science

Have you ever seen a magic show? We all know that most of these are just gimmicks, and tricks that play on our mind. However, real magic seemingly exists. The legendary Fakir magicians can make a normal rope erect, and make a boy climb it, and then disappear. They can levitate, fly and they claim this is real magic, granted to them by their gods. Uri Geller, the world-famous person with unbelievable psychokinetic powers, is able to bend a spoon just with his mind. He can psychically charge teddy bears that help people to boost their self-healing, helping people to recover from their illnesses. Why are some coincidences so eerily uncanny? Are all these really impossible to be explained by science?

In this area, you will read about some of the most fantastic happenings that has leave scientists baffled. Like that of the legendary levitating skill, or even just using your mind to bend a spoon, all these, though seemingly simple, has yet to be able to be explained by science, and are just deemed as magic, or even, black magic. What do you think? Read through these articles and see if you can have your own conclusion.

Difference of Squares

You have all learned that a2 - b2 = (a + b)(a - b) But perhaps you haven't thought about how to use this to do fast mental calculations! See if you can guess how this trick can help you do the following in your head: 43 x 37 78 x 82 36 x 24 Let's do the first one. 43 x 37 = (40 + 3)(40 - 3) = 402 - 32 = 1600 - 9 = 1591. Practice these, and you'll be able to impress your friends! Presentation Suggestions: See if the class can figure out what you are about to do. The Math Behind the Fact: The moral of the story is if you think CREATIVELY about everything that you learn in mathematics, even the easy stuff like algebra, you will find some surprising applications! See more Fun Facts on lightning arithmetic, or check out the reference below. How to Cite this Page: Su, Francis E., et al. "Difference of Squares." Math Fun Facts. .

Making Magic Squares

Figure 1 Figure 2 A magic square is an NxN matrix in which every row, column, and diagonal add up to the same number. Ever wonder how to construct a magic square? A silly way to make one is to put the same number in every entry of the matrix. So, let's make the problem more interesting--- let's demand that we use the consecutive numbers. I will show you a method that works when N is odd. As an example, consider a 3x3 magic square, as in Figure 1. Start with the middle entry of the top row. Place a 1 there. Now we'll move consecutively through the other squares and place the numbers 2, 3, 4, etc. It's easy: after placing a number, just remember to always move: 1. diagonally up and to the right when you can, 2. down if you cannot. The only thing you must remember is to imagine the matrix has "wrap-around", i.e., if you move off one edge of the magic square, you re-enter on the other side. Thus in Figure 1, from the 1 you move up/right (with wraparound) to the bottom right corner to place a 2. Then you move again (with wraparound) to the middle left to place the 3. Then you cannot move up/right from here, so move down to the bottom left, and place the 4. Continue... It's that simple. Doing so will ensure that every square gets filled! Presentation Suggestions: Do 3x3 and 5x5 examples, and then let students make their own magic squares by using other sets of consecutive numbers. How does the magic number change with choice of starting number? How can you modify a magic square and still leave it magic? The Math Behind the Fact: See if you can figure out (prove) why this procedure works. Get intuition by looking at lots of examples! If you are ready for more, you might enjoy this variant: take a 9x9 square. You already know how to fill this with numbers 1 through 81. But let me show you another way! View the 9x9 as a 3x3 set of 3x3 blocks! Now fill the middle block of the top row with 1 through 9 as if it were its own little 3x3 magic square... then move to the bottom right block according to the rule above and fill it with 10 through 27 like a little magic square, etc. See Figure 2. When finished you'll have a very interesting 9x9 magic square (and it won't be apparent that you used any rule)! How to Cite this Page: Su, Francis E., et al. "Making Magic Squares." Math Fun Facts. .

Some Mathematics facts

If you multiply 111, 111, 111 with 111, 111, 111, you will get the answer 12,345,678,987,654,321.

If you add up the numbers 1 to 1, 000 consecutively, the answer will be 5050.

Among all the 2-dimensional shapes, circle has the largest area but the shortest perimeter.

Prime number is the whole number that can divided by itself and 1 only.　Odd number cannot be divided by 2 exactly whereas even number can be diveded by 2 exactly.

The sum of 2 odd numbers is always an even number. For example, 3+7=10 @ 5+9=14

The sum of an odd number and an even number is always an odd number. for example, 1+2=3 @ 5+8=13

The product of the two odd number and an even number is always an even number. For example, 4×3=12

The difference of the two odd number is always an even number. For example, 5-3=2

Number Divisible by 2

All the even numbers (numbers ending with 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8) are divisible by 2.

For example,

3,698÷2=1849

108,756÷2=54,378

Number Divisible by 3

All the digits in a number.

If the sum of all the digits in a number is divisible by 3, then that number is divisible by 3.

For example,

3,927 ---- (3+9+2+7)÷3=7

therefore, 3927÷3=1,309

180,954 ---- (1+8+0+9+5+4)÷3=9

Therefore, 180,952 ÷3=60318

Francesco Pellos first used decimals in 1942. He used 2.5 to represent two and one over two.

A human hair is normally 0.008cm thick.

The thickness of a sheet of paper is normally 0.012cm.

The Chinese used the idea of negative numbers as early as 200BC and the Indians used it as early as the 7th century. Negative numbers were regarded as impossible numbers in Europe until the 17th century.

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khawarizmi, a well-known Arabian mathematician in the 9th century, was conferred the title 'Father of Algebra'. He had written a book on algebra entitled 'al-jabr wa'l-Muqabalah'.

Here are a few amazing prime numbers, these prime numbers were proved by the XVIIIth century.

31

331

3331

33331

333331

3333331

33333331

333333331

The next number 333333331 is not a prime number. Whereas it is multipled by 17x19607843.

To multiply by a 2-digit number add the two digits and place the sum between.

For example, 234x11=2574

Plant seeds and watch them grow

What you'll need:

• Fresh seeds of your choice such as pumpkins seeds, sunflower seeds, lima beans or pinto beans.
• Good quality soil (loose, aerated, lots of peat moss), if you don’t have any you can buy some potting soil at your local garden store.
• A container to hold the soil and your seeds.
• Water.
• Light and heat.

Instructions:

1. Fill the container with soil.
2. Plant the seeds inside the soil.
3. Place the container somewhere warm, sunlight is good but try to avoid too much direct sunlight, a window sill is a good spot.
4. Keep the soil moist by watering it everyday (be careful not to use too much water).
5. Record your observations as the seeds germinate and seedlings begin to sprout from the seeds.

What's happening?

Hopefully after a week of looking after them, your seedlings will be on their way. Germination is the process of a plant emerging from a seed and beginning to grow. For seedlings to grow properly from a seed they need the right conditions. Water and oxygen are required for seeds to germinate. Many seeds germinate at a temperature just above normal room temperature but others respond better to warmer temperatures, cooler temperatures or even changes in temperature. While light can be an important trigger for germination, some seeds actually need darkness to germinate, if you buy seeds it should mention the requirements for that specific type of seed in the instructions.

Continue to look after your seedlings and monitor their growth. For further experiments you could compare the growth rates of different types of seeds or the effect of different conditions on their growth.

Melting Chocolate

What you'll need:

• Small chocolate pieces of the same size (chocolate bar squares or chocolate chips are a good idea)
• Paper plates
• Pen and paper to record your results

Instructions:

1. Put one piece of chocolate on a paper plate and put it outside in the shade.
2. Record how long it took for the chocolate to melt or if it wasn't hot enough to melt then record how soft it was after 10 minutes.
3. Repeat the process with a piece of chocolate on a plate that you put outside in the sun. Record your results in the same way.
4. Find more interesting locations to test how long it takes for the chocolate pieces to melt. You could try your school bag, hot water or even your own mouth.
5. Compare your results, in what conditions did the chocolate melt? You might also like to record the temperatures of the locations you used using a thermometer so you can think about what temperature chocolate melts at.

What's happening?

At a certain temperature your chocolate pieces undergo a physical change, from a solid to a liquid (or somewhere in between). On a hot day, sunlight is usually enough to melt chocolate, something you might have unfortunately already experienced. You can also reverse the process by putting the melted chocolate into a fridge or freezer where it will go from a liquid back to a solid. The chocolate probably melted quite fast if you tried putting a piece in your mouth, what does this tell you about the temperature of your body? For further testing and experiments you could compare white choclate and dark chocolate, do they melt at the same temperature? How about putting a sheet of aluminium foil between a paper plate and a piece of chocolate in the sun, what happens then?

Steel Wool & Vinegar Chemical Reaction

What you'll need: Steel Wool Vinegar Two beakers Paper or a lid (something to cover the beaker to keep the heat in) Thermometer Instructions: Place the steel wool in a beaker. Pour vinegar on to the steel wool and allow it to soak in the vinegar for around one minute. Remove the steel wool and drain any excess vinegar. Wrap the steel wool around the base of the thermometer and place them both in the second beaker. Cover the beaker with paper or a lid to keep the heat in (make sure you can still read the temperature on the thermometer, having a small hole in the paper or lid for the thermometer to go through is a good idea). Check the initial temperature and then monitor it for around five minutes. What's happening? The temperature inside the beaker should gradually rise, you might even notice the beaker getting foggy. When you soak the steel wool in vinegar it removes the protective coating of the steel wool and allows the iron in the steel to rust. Rusting (or oxidation) is a chemical reaction between iron and oxygen, this chemical reaction creates heat energy which increases the temperature inside the beaker. This experiment is an example of an exothermic reaction, a chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of heat.

Test Your Dominant Side

What you'll need: A pen or pencil Paper or a notepad to write your findings on An empty tube (an old paper towel tube is good) A cup of water A small ball (or something soft you can throw) Instructions: Write ‘left’ or ‘right’ next to each task depending on what side you used/favored. When you’ve finished all the challenges review your results and make your own conclusions about which is your dominant eye, hand and foot. Eye tests: Which eye do you use to wink? Which eye do you use to look through the empty tube? Extend your arms in front of your body. Make a triangle shape using your fore fingers and thumbs. Bring your hands together, making the triangle smaller (about the size of a coin is good). Find a small object in the room and focus on it through the hole in your hands (using both eyes). Try closing just your left eye and then just your right, if your view of the object changed when you closed your left eye mark down ‘left’, if it changed when you closed your right eye mark down ‘right’. Hand/Arm tests: Which hand do you use to write? Pick up the cup of water, which hand did you use? Throw the ball, which arm did you use? Foot/Leg tests: Run forward and jump off one leg, which did you jump off? Drop the ball on the ground and kick it, which foot did you use? What's happening? So what side do you favor? Are you left handed or right handed? Left footed or right footed? Is your right eye dominant or is it your left? Around 90% of the world’s population is right handed. Why most people favor the right side is not completely understood by scientists. Some think that the reason is related to which side of your brain you use for language. The right side of your body is controlled by the left side of your brain, and in around 90% of people the left side of the brain also controls language. Others think the reason might have more to do with culture. The word ‘right’ is associated being correct and doing the right thing while the word ‘left’ originally meant ‘weak’. Favoring the right hand may have become a social development as more children were taught important skills by right handed people and various tools were designed to be used with the right hand. Around 80% of people are right footed and 70% favor their right eye. These percentages are lower than those who are right handed and this could be because your body has more freedom of choice in choosing its favored foot and eye than that of its favored hand. In other words you are more likely to be trained to use your right hand than your right foot and even more so than your right eye. It’s not strange to find people who favor the opposite hand and foot (e.g. left hand and right foot), and some people are lucky enough to be ambidextrous, meaning they can use their left and right sides with equal skill. Try testing others and coming to your on conclusions about what side the human body favors and why. Extra: Are you more likely to be left handed if one of your parents is left handed? What are some of the possible disadvantages for left handed people? (Tools, writing materials etc) Do left handed people have an advantage in sports? Interesting fact: In 2009, only 7% of the players in the NBA were left handed while in 2008 around 26% of MLB pitchers were left handed. Is it better to be left handed in some sports than others? What do you think?

Make Your Own Rainbow

What you'll need: A glass of water (about three quarters full) White paper A sunny day Instructions: Take the glass of water and paper to a part of the room with sunlight (near a window is good). Hold the glass of water (being careful not to spill it) above the paper and watch as sunlight passes through the glass of water, refracts (bends) and forms a rainbow of colors on your sheet of paper. Try holding the glass of water at different heights and angles to see if it has a different effect. What's happening? While you normally see a rainbow as an arc of color in the sky, they can also form in other situations. You may have seen a rainbow in a water fountain or in the mist of a waterfall and you can even make your own such as you did in this experiment. Rainbows form in the sky when sunlight refracts (bends) as it passes through raindrops, it acts in the same way when it passes through your glass of water. The sunlight refracts, separating it into the colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

Make a Crystal Snowflake!

What you'll need:

• String
• Wide mouth jar
• White pipe cleaners
• Blue food coloring (optional)
• Boiling water (take care or better still get an adult to help)
• Borax
• Small wooden rod or pencil

Instructions:

1. Grab a white pipe cleaner and cut it into three sections of the same size. Twist these sections together in the center so that you now have a shape that looks something like a six-sided star. Make sure the points of your shape are even by trimming them to the same length.

2. Take the top of one of the pipe cleaners and attach another piece of string to it. Tie the opposite end to your small wooden rod or pencil. You will use this to hang your completed snowflake.

3. Carefully fill the jar with boiling water (you might want to get an adult to help with this part).

4. For each cup of water add three tablespoons of borax, adding one tablespoon at a time. Stir until the mixture is dissolved but don’t worry if some of the borax settles at the base of the jar.

5. Add some of the optional blue food coloring if you'd like to give your snowflake a nice bluish tinge.

6. Put the pipe cleaner snowflake into the jar so that the small wooden rod or pencil is resting on the edge of the jar and the snowflake is sitting freely in the borax solution.

7. Leave the snowflake overnight and when you return in the morning you will find the snowflake covered in crystals! It makes a great decoration that you can show your friends or hang somewhere in your house.

What's happening?

Crystals are made up of molecules arranged in a repeating pattern that extends in all three dimensions. Borax is also known as sodium borate, it is usually found in the form of a white powder made up of colorless crystals that are easily dissolved in water.

When you add the borax to the boiling water you can dissolve more than you could if you were adding it to cold water, this is because warmer water molecules move around faster and are more spread apart, allowing more room for the borax crystals to dissolve.

When the solution cools, the water molecules move closer together and it can't hold as much of the borax solution. Crystals begin to form on top of each other and before you know it you have your completed crystal snow flake!

Find Microscopic Creatures in Water

What you'll need: A concave slide A dropper A microscope Different samples of water (tap water, pond water, muddy water etc). Near plants or in the mud are good places to take samples as they usually contain more microorganisms. Instructions: Set up you microscope, preferably using its highest setting. Use the dropper to take some water from one of your samples and put it on the concave slide. Focus the microscope, what can you see? Be patient if you can't see anything. If you still can't see anything and have checked that you are in focus, try a different water sample. Look at how the creatures move. After observing their movements you might like to record their behaviors and draw them. What are you looking at? Some of the creatures and microorganisms you might be able to see include: Euglenas - These are between a plant and an animal, they have a long tail called a flagellum which allows them to move. Protozoa - They have a flagella (tail) which can be hard to see, the difference between protozoa and algae is often hard to define. Amoebas - These microorganisms swim by wobbling. They also surround their food like a blob in order to eat it. Algae - Not considered to be plants by most scientists, these organisms might be colored yellowish, greenish or reddish. They may also be found by themselves or in chains. There might even my larger creatures such as worms or brine shrimp in your water samples, depending on where you took them from.